WORLD WAR I
:CONFLICTING NATIONAL INTERESTS:
1. Years before 1914: "International Anarchy"
2. Nations pursued policies without regard for the wishes and interests of its neighbors.
3. 1815: The Congress of Vienna
a. Maintain peace through balance of power and co-operation.
b. Concert of Europe: relations between nations more or less harmonious.
4. Late 19th Century:
a. Growth of intense nationalism and imperialistic rivalries.
b. Conflicts led to an arms race and secret alliances.
NATIONALISM: a feeling among a group that they belong together because of common culture, history, and problems --- a devotion to the interests of one's own nation without regard for others.
1. Early 19th Century: attempted to unite under governments representative of and
controlled by its citizens (Liberalism).
2. Late 19th Century: Nationalism became less liberal - German and Italian Unification.
3. Union of a national group under one government would lead to tension.
a. The Balkans:
1. Serbia wanted to bring neighboring Slavic regions under its rule.
2. Austria opposed an independent state in the Balkans.
3. Russia supported Serbia hoping to extend their influence in the Balkans.
b. France:
1. Desire to regain the French speaking regions of Alsace and Lorraine lost to Germany in the Franco Prussian War.
2. This iron producing region was of interest to the German steel industry.
c. Characteristic of how nationalism created tension between nations.
IMPERIALISM: a policy of extending the rule of a nation over foreign countries by acquiring colonies, protectorates, or spheres of influence.
Colony: any people or territory separated from but subject to a ruling power.
Protectorate: the relation of a strong state toward a weaker state that it protects and partly controls.
Sphere of Influence: an area in which a foreign nation holds special trading privileges
and builds and controls industry.
1. 1898: The Fashoda Affair
a. Britain and France almost went to war over a village in the Sudan.
b. Negotiated settlement since both nations feared the imperialistic aims of Germany.
c. France recognized British control of the Sudan.
d. France received the northern part of French Equatorial Africa and recognition of its possessions in French West Africa.
2. Moroccan Crisis of 1905:
a. The German Kaiser challenged France's sphere of influence in Morocco.
b. Wilhelm II pledged his support for Moroccan independence.
c. France agreed to submit the question to an International Conference.
d. The Algeciras Conference:
1. The independence of Morocco was reaffirmed.
2. Recognized France's special interests in Morocco.
3. Moroccan Crisis of 1911:
a. Germany challenged France's attempt to convert Morocco into a protectorate.
b. Compromise:
1. Germany received a small area of the French Congo.
2. Morocco was allowed to become a French Protectorate.
4. Imperialistic Rivalries in China:
a. 1899: Open Door Policy - equal trade rights in China for all nations.
b. 1900: The Boxer Rebellion
1. Boxers, a secret society, staged an uprising to drive out all foreigners.
2. An international force suppressed the rebellion.
c. Britain had annexed Hong Kong as a colony.
d. France: annexed Indo-China and gained a sphere of influence in Southeastern China.
e. Russia: obtained a lease to the ice free port of Port Arthur and established a sphere of influence in Manchuria.
f. Germany: a sphere of influence in Northeastern China.
g. Japan:
1. 1895: had annexed Formosa.
2. Russo-Japanese War 1904-05: received Port Arthur and Southern Manchuria.
2. 1910: annexed Korea.
5. The declining Ottoman Empire continued to be a source of conflict between European nations.
MILITARISM: glorification in armed strength and the belief that international problems can be solved by the use of force.
1. Nationalism and imperialism depended on a strong army and navy.
2. Army officers became more influential in government - even in such nations as Britain (holding non-military positions in government).
3. Germany:
a. The General Staff:
1. To perfect the organization, equipment, and training of the army.
2. To prepare war plans for any possible opponent.
b. Reserve Forces maintained through conscription.
4. Other European nations also began to develop reserve forces.
5. Armament manufacturers encouraged increased production of military equipment.
a. 1890's: Germany began to build up a strong and modern navy.
b. France, the United States, and Italy also began a naval build up to match the efforts of Germany.
6. Increased taxation for military build up justified by:
a. Pride in a nation's strength.
b. Need for national defense and security.
SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES
1. The balance of power had changed in Europe because of the unification of Germany and Italy.
2. Bismarck's aim in Foreign Policy:
a. To make Germany the most powerful nation in Europe.
b. To keep France isolated and without allies - fear of a two front war.
3. 1879: Bismarck formed the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary.
4. 1882: The Triple Alliance
a. Defensive alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
b. Italy's participation seemed a contradiction with its own history and self interests (ie. Austria).
1. Austria and Italy had been enemies for years.
2. The cities of Trieste and Fiume which Italy wanted were under Austrian control.
3. The Austrian Province of Tyrol contained the Brenner Pass - the chief invasion route from the north into Italy.
4. Italy was drawn into the alliance over French seizure of Tunisia in North Africa in 1881.
c. Bismarck did not believe Italy could be counted on. However, it did further isolated France.
5. Bismarck maintained friendly relations with Britain and Russia by not interfering in their colonial ambitions.
6. 1888: Wilhelm II became Kaiser of Germany.
a. Wilhelm II insisted on making his own foreign policy.
b. 1890: Bismarck was forced to resign.
c. Wilhelm II reversed Bismarck's policies toward Britain and France.
1. Entered the race for colonies creating conflicting interests with other European nations.
2. Began Germany's naval expansion.
TRIPLE ENTENTE:
1. France's need for an ally.
a. Russia needed foreign capital and sought a loan from France.
b. France willing to loan the money desiring to win the friendship of Russia.
c. 1894: France and Russia form an alliance.
1. French isolation was broken.
2. Bismarck's fear of facing potential enemies on two fronts became
a reality.
2. British naval supremacy was being threatened by Germany's growing Navy.
a. Britain attempted to reach agreement over naval strength with Germany, but these efforts failed.
b. Wilhelm II's imperial ambitions began to interfere with British interests.
c. Germany was also creating competition for Britain in world markets.
3. 1904: Britain and France reached an agreement over Morocco and Egypt. Entente: a friendly understanding or agreement between nations.
4. To balance the Triple Alliance, an agreement between Britain and Russia was necessary.
a. Rivalry in the Near East made an agreement difficult.
b. With French help, Britain and Russia settled differences over spheres of influence in Persia and China.
c. 1907: The Triple Entente between Britain, France, and Russia was formed.
5. Both France and Russia had secret agreements with Italy.
* Italy: a foot in both camps.
ALLIANCES:
1. By 1907: Europe faced two conflicting systems of alliances.
2. Triple Alliance: Central Powers
a. Held a central position on the Continent.
1. Territory of the three members bordered each other.
2. Made joint military action much easier.
b. Italy: "Weak Link"
1. Could not be depended upon -- secret agreements.
2. Hostility between Austria and Italy continued despite the alliance.
3. Triple Entente:
a. Positive Position:
1. Control of the Seas - British naval supremacy.
2. Could surround the nations of the Triple Alliance.
b. Negative Position:
1. Loosely bound together not an alliance.
2. Unsettled disputes between Britain and Russia over Constantinople and the Dandanelles.
4. Europe was divided into two armed camps - two nations could bring all six into war.
Europe 1914: The issue that caused the war was not of vital concern to Germany, France, or Britain -------- old antagonism and alliances.
THE BALKANS: POWDER KEG
1. Slavic Nationalists in Serbia want Serbia to be the center of a large Slavic state.
2. Provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were under Austrian control.
a. Serbia wanted to annex them from Austria.
b. Large Slavic population.
c. Would provide an outlet to the Adriatic Sea for land lock Serbia.
d. Justification: Congress of Berlin had made them protectorates of Austria. 1908: Annexed by Austria --- this action outraged Serbia.
3. Russia supported Serbia's Nationalistic Goals.
a. Russia hoped to assume the leadership of a slavic league.
b. Russia also wanted access to Constantinople and the Mediterranean Sea.
4. Opposed by Britain:
a. Threat to British naval supremacy in the Mediterranean.
b. Possible threat to the Suez Canal.
5. Germany:
a. Germany began negotiating to bring the Ottoman Empire into the Triple Alliance and to extend their influence in the Balkans.
b. Proposed Berlin to Bagdad Railroad.
1. Germany had secured their first Concessions for the railroad in 1902.
2. Britain feared it would provide a better trade route than the Suez Canal.
3. Russia feared Germany would become a threat to their aims against Constantinople and the Dardanelles.
4. The Railroad: was only in early stages of construction in 1914.
APPROACH TO WAR: IMMEDIATE CAUSE
1. June 28, 1914: Sarajevo
a. Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Austrian throne) and his wife had made a state visit to Sarajevo.
b. Capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
c. The Archduke and his wife were assassinated by a Serbian Nationalist.
2. The Assassin (Gavrilo Princeps)
a. Member of a secret nationalistic society, the Black Hand.
b. No evidence that the Serbian Government took part in the plot.
c. The Prime Minister of Serbia had general knowledge of the plot.
3. Motivation to assassinate the Archduke:
b. He wanted the Dual Monarchy transformed into a Triple Monarchy.
c. Creation of a semi-independent Slavic State under Austrian guidance.
4. Austria was determined that Serbia be punished for the death of Franz Ferdinand.
a. Gained assurance of German support before taking action.
b. Fear: Russia would come to the aid of Serbia (fellow slavs).
5. Austria issued Serbia with an Ultimatum.
a. Serbian government condemn all anti Austrian Propaganda.
b. Suppress all anti Austrian publications and societies.
c. Eliminate all anti Austrian books and teachers from Serbian schools.
d. Dismiss any official who promoted anti Austrian Propaganda.
e. Austrian officials must be allowed to help in suppressing propaganda.
f. Austrian Judges must be allowed to sit in judgment of those accused of the crime at Sarajevo.
g. All terms had to be accepted within 48 hours.
6. Serbia accepted all the terms except the last two ----- proposed the entire dispute be submitted to an International Court.
7. Safeguard: Serbia mobilized all her troops.
8. July 28, 1914:
a. The time limit had run out.
b. Austria declared war on Serbia - one month after the assassination.
ENTRIES INTO THE WAR:
1. Russia certain of an Austrian attack on Serbia.
a. Russia mobilized troops along the Russian-Austrian Border.
b. Russia also sent troops to the German Border.
2. Germany:
a. Demanded Russia cancel their mobilization within 12 hours or face war.
b. Russian Refusal: Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914.
c. August 3, 1914: convinced of French entry, Germany declared war on France.
3. Britain did not want a European war.
a. Wanted to remain neutral.
b. War: there would be a need to make the British people willing to go to war.
4. Belgium:
a. 1839: Belgium neutrality had been guaranteed shortly after their independence.
b. Location: strategic importance to the German General Staff.
c. German War Plan (The Schlieffen Plan): to defeat France before Russia could attack.
d. Problem: Franco- German border was hilly, wooded, and highly fortified on both sides.
e. The Plan called for an attack through the Franco Belgium border -- take Paris before French mobilization could be completed.
5. Germany issued Belgium with an ultimatum.
a. Demanded that German troops be allowed to cross Belgium territory.
b. Britain demanded that Belgian neutrality be respected.
c. The German Foreign Minister: maintained that Britain would not fight a war over a scrap of paper.
ie. Belgian Neutrality.
d. August 4, 1914:
1. German troops marched into Belgium.
2. Later that day - Britain declared war on Germany.
OTHER PARTICIPANTS:
1. Late August 1914:
a. Japan declared war on Germany in accordance with the Anglo Japanese Alliance of 1902.
b. Japan captured the German base at Tsingtao and the entire Shantung Peninsula in China.
c. The War was used as an excuse for Japanese imperialism in the Far East.
2. Italy:
a. Viewed German and Austria as aggressors -- thus Italy was not obligated to enter the war since the Triple Alliance was a defensive alliance.
b. Italy would remain neutral for nine months.
c. Secret Treaties: negotiated post war settlements with Britain, France and Russia.
d. May 1915: Italy entered the war against her former allies.
3. November 1914:
a. The Ottoman Empire entered the war allied to Germany.
b. Strategic Location: to keep supplies from reaching Russia.
4. October 1915: Bulgaria entered the war on the side of Germany.
ALLIES: Britain, France, and Russia (eventually 32 nations -- most joined late in the war with
minor contributions). Italy in 1915.
CENTRAL POWERS: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire.
CHANGES IN WARFARE:
1. Industrialized War - all industries were organized to aid the war effort.
2. The Machine Gun:
a. Land advances were very difficult.
b. Forced to dig extensive systems of trenches.
3. 1916: Britain introduced the tank (extensive use did not occur until the latter stages of the war).
4. Airplanes:
a. Used primarily for observing troop movements.
b. Aerial combat was rare.
c. Used for dropping explosives.
5. Germany was the first nation to make extensive use of Submarines - U Boats.
6. Germans introduced the us of poison gas which the Allies copied -- lost its effectiveness after the development of the gas mask.
7. War of People:
a. European Wars: had utilized (in the past) professional armies (sometimes mercenaries). Exception: War of the French Revolution.
b. World War I: citizen armies.
THE WAR: 1914-1916
1. German Plan: quick defeat of France before Britain could mobilize.
2. First Battle of the Marne: September 5-12, 1914
a. Germans launched their attack through Belgium and by September they had reached the Marne River.
b. The French under General Joseph Joffre counter attacked.
c. Ended German plans of a swift victory over France.
d. The Western Front: system of trenches stretching from the Swiss borderto the North Sea.
3. The Eastern Front:
a. Russians mobilized their troops sooner than the Germans expected.
b. Two Russian Armies:
1. One moved westward toward Budapest, the capital of Hungary.
2. The other moved into East Prussia threatening the seaport of Danzig.
c. The Battle of Tannenberg: August 26-30, 1914
1. General Paul von Hindendberg defeated the Russians in East Prussia.
2. German counter offensive in Hungary forced the Russians completely out of Germany.
4. Russia:
a. Isolated from her allies with a severe need of supplies and equipment.
b. 1915: Britain and France
1. Plan: to break through the Dandanelles and capture Constantinople.
2. Battleship bombardments failed in forcing the surrender of Constantinople.
3. Landed troops on the Gallipoli Peninsula.
4. After eight months of fighting, the Allies were forced to withdraw.
c. The Allies inability to supply Russia was eventually to be a contributing cause to the Russian Revolution.
5. Naval Warfare:
a. Britain decided on a naval blockade of the North Sea.
b. To prevent food and war materials from reaching Germany.
c. Germany: unrestricted submarine warfare.
1. To prevent the importation of food and war materials.
2. May 1915: the British Liner, the Lusitania was sunk.
a. Surprise attack killing 1200 people.
b. Over 100 were Americans.
d. Strong protest from Woodrow Wilson.
1. Another incident like the Lusitania would not be tolerated.
2. Germany stopped their practice of unrestricted submarine warfare fearing United States entry into the war.
e. The Battle of Jutland:
1. May 1916: only large naval battle of the war.
2. Fought in the North Sea - not a major victory for either side (Britain and Germany).
3. Result: German navy did not leave the Baltic for the rest of the war. (Exception: U-Boats
6. The Battle of Verdun: February 1916
a. Lasted six months.
b. French General Henri Petain held the Germans off.
c. Losses:
Germany: 330,000
France: 350,000
(The War:: a stalemate, a war of attrition - trying to outlast the other side.)
ROLE OF THE UNITED STATES:
1. 1914: The United States declared its neutrality (it was a European Affair).
2. United States supplied both sides with food, raw materials, and munitions.
3. The Government:
a. Americans had the right to trade with either side without interference.
b. Americans had the right to travel in safety on ships of any nation (neutral or belligerent).
4. As a Neutral:
a. The United States government could not lend money to either side.
b. The government did not prevent banks, corporations, or private citizens from buying foreign government bonds or selling goods on credit.
5. The British Blockade of Europe:
a. Forced Americans to trade only with the Allies.
b. Most of the goods were paid for with borrowed American money.
AMERICAN ENTRY INTO THE WAR:
1. January 1917: The German Foreign Minister, Alfred Zimmerman, sent a secret telegram to the German ambassador in Mexico.
a. It instructed the ambassador to attempt to bring Mexico into the war on Germany's side.
b. Germany promised the return of part of the southwestern United States lost by Mexico in 1848. (Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona)
2. Britain intercepted the message.
a. The British decoded the telegram and sent it to Washington.
b. Public Outrage: The Zimmerman Telegram was released to American newspapers.
3. January 1917: Germany had also resumed unrestricted submarine warfare.
ie. Germany was facing severe food and munition shortages.
4. March 1917:
a. The Czarist government of Russia was overthrown.
b. It was believed that Russia would withdraw from the war.
5. April 2, 1917:
a. President Woodrow Wilson asked for a declaration of war against the Central Powers.
b. April 6, 1917: Congress voted overwhelmingly to declare war on the Central Powers.
c. Spring and Summer 1918: the first American troops began to arrive in large numbers.
American Expeditionary Force (AEF): under the command of General John J. Pershing.
6. November 1917:
a. Communists seized control of the Russian government.
b. March 1918: The Communist government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany.
c. It (communist government) published the terms of the secret treaties signed by the Allies when Italy entered the war.
FOURTEEN POINTS:
1. Allied War Aims - peace with justice.
2. Announced by Wilson in a speech before Congress in January 1918.
3. Points (1-5 and 14): general aims.
a. No secret treaties - all treaties should be openly negotiated and made public.
b. Freedom of the seas for all nations, in peace and war.
c. Removal of all economic barriers - equal opportunity for trade among all nations.
d. Reduction of national armaments: only what was needed for domestic safety.
e. Fair adjustment of all colonial claims (The interest of the people of a region were to be considered equally with those of a nation claiming title to the territory).
f. (14) "A general association of Nations" would guarantee political independence and protection to large and small states alike.
4. The other eight points: dealt with specific countries and regions - Russia, Belgium, Alsace - Lorraine, and the Balkans.
5. Its publication made the German people more willing to surrender.
6. Failure of Wilson: to force the Allies to definitely agree to the fourteen points and renounce their secret treaties.
DEFEAT OF THE CENTRAL POWERS:
1. Russian Withdrawal: allowed Germany to stage an offensive on the western front during the Spring and Summer of 1918.
2. May 1918: General Ferdinand Foch was appointed Supreme Allied Commander.
a. The Germans had reached the Marne River - 37 miles from Paris.
b. A combined French and American Army was able to hold the line: known as the Second Battle of the Marne (July and August).
3. By June 1918: Germans had been stopped at Chateau Thierry (May 30-31).
4. Allied Offensive:
a. September 1918: St. Mihiel (September 12-16) and the Argone Forest (by the end of October).
b. Result: Germans were forced back to their own borders.
5. The German Collapse:
a. End of September 1918: (29th) - Generals von Ludendorff and von Hindenberg announced to the Kaiser that an armistice was a necessity.
b. October 3rd: a message was sent to President Wilson proposing an armistice.
c. Wilson's Reply: Germany must evacuate all invaded territory before an armistice could be considered.
October 12th: Germany agreed.
d. October 16th: terms of an armistice had to be left to the governments of the United States and its allies.
e. October 20th: Germany accepted these conditions.
f. October 23rd: Wilson demanded the removal of the Monarchy (Kaiser) or face continued fighting.
g. October 30th: the German fleet at Kiel rebelled when ordered to put to sea.
h. November 9th: the Kaiser abdicated and went to Holland in exile (he remained there until his death in 1941).
i. November 11th: an armistice was signed at Campiegne in the name of the new German Republic.
1. Germany had to cancel the peace treaty signed with Russia.
2. Surrender all submarines and a large part of its surface fleet.
3. Surrender a large part of their munitions - to prevent the possibility of renewed fighting.
6. Collapse of the other Central Powers.
a. Austria:
1. Charles I had succeeded to the Austrian throne in November 1916.
2. October 4th: Austria joined Germany in seeking an armistice with the Allies.
3. November 3rd: Austria signed an armistice with the Allies.
4. November 11th: Charles I abdicated his imperial title.
b. Bulgaria: had signed an armistice in September 1918.
c. The Ottoman Empire: had signed an armistice in October 1918.
PEACE CONFERENCE: PARIS - JANUARY 1919:
1. The Big Four:
a. Woodrow Wilson of the United States.
b. David Lloyd George of Great Britain.
c. Georges Clemenceau of France.
d. Vittorio Orlando of Italy.
2. Woodrow Wilson:
a. Terms should reflect the fourteen points.
b. He wanted both sides represented and participating in the writing of a peace treaty fair to all nations.
3. Failure:
a. All allies were represented except Russia.
b. The Central Powers were not represented - only asked to accept the terms.
c. They wrote a separate treaty with each defeated nation.
d. The Big Four actually wrote the treaties in advance of the conference.
4. Territorial Demands:
a. France:
1. Return of Alsace and Lorraine.
2. The French border to be extended to the Rhine River (to gain the Rhineland).
3. The Saar Valley - rich coal deposits in Germany.
b. Italy:
1. Claimed Tyrol and Trieste - secret treaties of 1915.
2. Also demanded the city of Fiume.
3. Wilson opposed the issue of Fiume.
c. Great Britain:
1. Demanded all of Germany's African colonies.
2. Wanted the destruction of the German Navy.
d. Belgium: wanted a small portion of German territory along its border.
e. Japan:
1. Had occupied the German held Marshall, Caroline, and Mariana islands-- also Tsingtao and the Shangtung Peninsula in China.
2. Demanded permanent ownership of all this territory.
THE VERSAILLES TREATY: GERMANY
1. Germany had to admit that it alone was responsible for the war and its liability for war reparations.
2. War Reparations:
a. Five Billion Dollars within two years and an un-named sum later.
b. 1921: Allies set the total at $33 Billion.
3. Formation of the League of Nations.
4. The Rhineland was to be a demilitarized zone occupied by allied troops for an unspecified period.
5. The Saar Valley:
a. It was to be administered by the League of Nations for fifteen years.
b. Coal mined there was to go to France as reparations.
c. At the end of Fifteen years: A Vote
1. To continue with the League.
2. To become part of France or rejoin Germany.
6. Belgium received the territory along its border that it had demanded.
7. Denmark received part of Schelswig.
8. The Eastern Border of Germany:
a. A large part of it went to the restored nation of Poland.
b. The Polish Corridor:
1. It cut East Prussia off from the rest of Germany.
2. It provided Poland with an outlet to the Baltic Sea.
3. Danzig: on the northern coast of the corridor became a free city administered by the League.
9. Division of German Colonies:
a. Britain: German East Africa (Tanganyika), part of the Cameroons, and part of Togo.
b. Union of South Africa received German Southwest Africa.
c. France received part of the Cameroons and part of Togo.
d. Japan: the Pacific
1. German held islands north of the Equator.
2. Tsingtao and Germany's right in the Shangtung Peninsula.
e. Australia and New Zealand received German held islands south of the equator.
10. Germany had to abolish conscription and was forbidden to maintain a reserve army.
11. The German Navy could have no battle ships larger than 10,000 tons and no submarines at all.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY:
1. The Dual Monarchy was split into the separate countries of Austria and Hungary.
2. Austria: Treaty of St. Germain - 1919
a. Lost Tyrol and the city of Trieste to Italy.
b. Became an independent republic of six million people of whom two million lived in Vienna.
c. Austria could not produce enough food for its people or supply its factories with needed raw materials.
3. Hungary: Treaty of Trianon - 1920
* Hungary lost considerable territory and became a land locked nation.
4. New Nations:
a. Czechoslovakia: central Europe, included Czeches, Slovaks, and Ruthenians.
b. Yugoslavia: in the western Balkans, included Serbia, Montenegro, and the Provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE: Treaty of Sevres - 1920; Lausanne - 1923
BULGARIA: Treaty of Neuilly - 1920
1. Bulgaria was reduced in size and lost its outlet to the Aegean Sea.
2. The Ottoman Empire was broken up - severe measures.
3. Cyprus was recognized as a British Colony - it had been annexed in 1914.
4. Italy received the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea.
5. Greece received Thrace in Europe and the city of Smyrna on the coast of Asia Minor.
6. Constantinople and the straits were demilitarized and controlled by an international commission.
7. Other Territorial Changes:
a. The Sultan gave up claims in North Africa: Egypt and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
b. New Nations: Palestine, Trans-Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq (they were not independent - mandates of the League of Nations).
c. Britain: Palestine, Trans-Jordan, and Iraq (mandates under the League).
d. France: Syria and Lebanon (mandates under the League).
e. The Kingdom of Hejaz: was recognized as independent.
PROBLEMS:
1. Russian Territory: independence of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania was recognized by the allies.
2. The Russian Province of Bessarabia went to Rumania.
3. Russia lost more territory than Germany.
a. Russia had withdrawn from the war in 1917 making a separate treaty with Germany.
b. Fear that the Communist Revolution would spread westward.
c. Purpose: to isolate Russia from Western Europe with buffer states.
4. German Minorities:
a. 250,000 German speaking Austrians in Tyrol under Italy.
b. Germans in Danzig and the Polish Corridor.
c. Three million German speaking Austrians in the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia.
d. Minority rights were to be protected by the League of Nations.
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS:
1. A special commission wrote the Covenant of the League of Nations which became part of the Versailles Treaty.
2. Goal: to promote international cooperation, and to maintain peace by peaceful settlements of disputes and by reducing arms.
3. The League was to work closely with the Court of International Justice or the World Court (at the Hague).
4. Agencies of the League:
a. Assembly: the lower house - representatives of all member states with one vote each.
b. Council: the upper house
1. Made up of nine member nations, later increased to fifteen.
2. Five Permanent Members: Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan and the United States.
3. Additional seats were filled by smaller states on a rotation basis.
5. The Mandate System:
a. Problems caused by imperialism.
b. "Backward" nations were placed under the supervision of more advanced nations until they were prepared for independence.
c. Pledge: to prepare the people for independent self government, not to fortify the territory, and to make annual reports to the League about its progress.
6. Peace-Keeping Measures:
a. Member nations pledged not to go to war and submit all disputes to arbitration.
b. Penalties for breaking this pledge: breaking diplomatic relations, imposing economic sanctions, blockade, or military force as a last resort.
7. The United States:
a. The Covenant of the League was part of the Versailles Treaty - ratification depended on the United States Senate.
b. Opposition to the peace settlement and the League - it failed to pass the Senate.
c. 1921: The United States signed a separate treaty with the Central Powers.
8. First Meeting of the League was held at Geneva in November 1920.
a. 42 Nations were represented.
b. Germany was not allowed to join until 1926.
c. Russia did not become a member until 1934.
d. 1935: 62 Nations were represented.
COST OF THE WAR:
1. Estimated: over eight million people lost their lives in battle.
2. Russia: more than two million.
3. Germany: almost two million.
4. Austria-Hungary: 1 1/4 million.
5. France: nearly 1 1/2 million.
6. Britain: almost one million.
7. The United States: 115,000
8. Cost: estimated at $400 Billion.
(UNRESOLVED PROBLEMS AND HOSTILITIES) !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!